The First Attempts for the Syntax of the Regional Variety of Chameria

Introduction

Chameria is a province of Albania which was annexed by Greece after the Great Powers' decision at the Ambassadors' Conference in London on July 29, 1913. Although it is Albanian land, it still continues to be part of Greece today. Residents of this province have undergone mandatory resettlement, driven either by psychological violence (and here we consider the Turkish-Greek exchange signed under the Lausanne Agreement in January 1923, where a large part of the Cham population, due to their Muslim beliefs, unjustly became part of this exchange, being referred to as Turks), or by physical violence after 1944 (here we consider the violent cleansing of the population of this province from their homeland, accompanied by inhumane massacres, toward Albanian territory). Apart from these two events, there is evidence that the departure of the Chams occurred both before 1923 and after 1944, when the Chams, fearing for their lives, were displaced not only in the two directions above, but also to America, Australia, Canada, and so on. Part of the Orthodox Chams have remained in their territories and continue to live there to this day. The cruelly and violently expelled population is denied to this day the right to return to the homeland (although it is Albanian land).

We recall that the Cham speech belongs to the South Tosk subdialect, along with the Laberia dialect. It is separated from the latter by the Shalësi River south of Delvina and includes the inland dialects that extend geographically from Konispoli throughout Chameria to Preveza Bay (Gjinari, Shkurtaj 1997: 184).

For a reader who is unaware of the linguistic value of this speech, we summarize it briefly in a few words:

• The Cham speech still shows similarities with the first document of written Albanian, Gjon Buzuk's "Meshari".
• The talk of Chameria now shows common phenomena of the system with Arbëresh's dialects (early Diaspora in Italy, Bulgaria, Ukraine, America, etc.).
• There is also a noticeable similarity between some of the most peripheral state and ethnic Albanian dialects and the Chameria regional variety.
• Based on this (relying on in-depth studies on this subject), we say with conviction that the Cham dialect is a clear argument that the potential for studying Albanian beyond the documented period is great (Troplini 2016: ).

Results & Discussion

Linguistic developments in our country began to be inspired by the panorama of generative-transformative grammar, which began to curb the attempt to see language in context (Robins 2007 )

According to Totoni, the syntax of the Albanian language is characterized by two important approaches:

Traditional syntax. The syntax that it was customary to practice to school.

Syntax studies of recent years. This direction has attempted to see as the object of syntax the study of the structure of the living language, the structure of discourse, in the entirety of the factors that characterize it, both linguistic and extralinguistic ... (Totoni 1970: 143)

Regardless of this study, our aim regarding the syntax of Chameria is guided by the second approach, that is, according to recent developments in the field of syntax. The variety of the syntax of Chameria promises a lot in this regard. A clear argument for this is the treatment we have given to Cham intonation (Troplini 2016 ), a special intonation, important for the science of phonetics, with a syntactic function, which we have named: intonation with expressive function, which differs from distinctively stylistic expressive intonyms.

In this paper, we intended to familiarize the reader with its condition, giving him the opportunity to become acquainted with some phonetic, morphological, lexical and semantic phenomena, which have a special significance in syntax. So this study begins with the so-called simple syntax, to then proceed to other in-depth syntax studies of this speech. Although it may seem that we have adhered to the formal-grammatical direction (so, it looks like a kind of morphology of syntax), we are convinced that the treatment of the following phenomena should initially be done in this way because of the special significance they carry inside the sentence or phrase, and moreover, this type of treatment leaves us room to delve even deeper in the future.

As we know, syntax is not a new science. Although the word syntaxis was used in Dionysus Trachas's work (about 100 BC), the greatest disadvantage of the "Tèchnē grammatikē" work was its treatment of syntax. However, in the first works on syntax (2nd century AD), Apollo Diskoli (Apollonios Dyskolos) used the system of classes and grammatical categories of "Tèchnē grammatikē" without any changes. This is what he did two centuries later (II century AD). He is also known for the treatise titled "On Syntax." (Robins 2007)

According to Graffi, the treatise clearly mentions the so-called solosms (Graph 2003: 17) (syntactic errors within the phrase). If we were to refer to Cham and use Apolo Diskol's term for what he called and considered syntaxial mistakes, we would say that "solosms" are really numerous in the Cham dialect and comparatively higher than in other Albanian dialects; as it is an ancient variety and, as such, well preserved, it still seems underdeveloped alongside other Albanian speeches.

Cham is, on the one hand, a regional speech, but compared to Albanian, along with the Arbëresh speeches (Arberesh everywhere, in Italy, Greece, Mandria, Zara, etc.), it can be considered a conservative, archaic language, with visible distinctions from Albanian in its phonological, morphological and lexical systems (Troplini 2017). Grammatical mismatches are numerous in it, also because Cham is a language with noticeable recurrence during discourse. Therefore, in Cham we find them present everywhere. We provide some examples (few in number, considering their great presence in this speech):

Kërkoj numër shtatë (I’m searching number seven); Na sell qahi (He brought the pie); s’biheshin këmbët (I couldn’t walk); kalova gjithë shpitë (I passed all the houses); kish çelur zjarrë (Light the fire); u kthe prap në shtëpi (He is back home again); nuk lii njeri as të hin / as të dil ka porta (he did not allow anyone to enter nor to go out)

These grammatical abnormalities can be observed in both phonetic and morphological terms, as has been noted in previous syntactic papers, since these words, despite these anomalies, retain the same syntactic functions as in normal use.

If we look at the verbal system, it serves as a study space in which we can see endless uses of "normative errors" in syntax. This phenomenon is increasingly varied when we consider the types of verbs in sentences, non-finite forms, the nominal or compound predicate, as well as all possible predicate links. Examples are also inevitable in complementary constituents.

Since this is a very common phenomenon in this speech, we have avoided detailed descriptions of the examples (of the type: in the phrase "had fired fire", one notes the use of the indefinite form instead of the definite form in the direct object), as in every Cham sentence three or four agreement errors of this type can be found and it is impossible to provide a detailed description of all of them, since they concern the same phenomenon.

It should be said that in earlier times this was a recurring phenomenon, but that does not mean that it constitutes an obstacle to addressing the syntax of speech; we quote:

"Syntax (like all language), being a descriptive and non-normative discipline, cannot be confined to considering only sentences judged correctly by school and normative grammar, but instead be based on intuitive judgments of native speakers of a certain language, which evaluates the combinations of words as correctly or wrongly formed"(Graffi 2003: 27)

On the other hand, it should be emphasized that non-grammatical forms are present in various forms across different spoken varieties. As we stated earlier, this is much more noticeable in older Albanian varieties, which include Cham, the Early Diaspora, and all peripheral dialects of Albanian, ranked on the basis of their degree of conservatism. The more conservative they appear, the more frequent the phenomenon of grammatical abnormalities within them.

On the other hand, it should be noted that such anomalies cannot be avoided either in everyday spoken and written language or in other types of written and oral communication in modern Albanian; however, in the dialect in question (in our case, Cham), this phenomenon is quite interesting because it is not only a dialectal variety, but also quite conservative. Cham is the epitome of that early linguistic saying according to which there is always a rule for every irregularity.

We proceed with some other typical syntactic phenomena of this variety.

What is remarkable in the Chameria variety is the use of the same word with different meanings and several syntactic functions simultaneously. Regarding this phenomenon, we have examined the words:

• çish as an interrogative pronoun or as a conjunctive pronoun with various syntactic functions;
• the verb bëri (did) with several syntactic functions and different meanings in different contexts;
• the words një and pa with multiple uses, but with the same syntactic and semantic function in different contexts.

Before examining these three phenomena in detail, we must clarify that they are always considered in the context of discourse, even though they are treated simply as constituents. What we should point out is that the following phenomena and the overwhelming majority of the phenomena discussed in this paper are mainly used in the characteristic sentences of the Chameria variety, where the most typical is the summoning sentence (demonstrative-summoning, stimulating-summoning, causative-summoning, questionable-summoning), accompanied mostly by its characteristic intonation and, in some cases, by a special kind of intonation typical of this speech: an intonation with an expressive function. The following phenomena are seen only within the particular Cham melody, through which its sentences are distinguished (especially the summoning ones). Their annotating voices emerge only through the various syntactic connections of the constituents discussed below, highly characteristic of Cham.

The form çish (what)

As a conjunctive pronoun, the form çish is often used in the function of the object: harroi çish kish vënë atje/ nuk kish parë çish kish vënë jati poshtë; ja ba vesh i tha kali djalit // tani do biç prapë çish të them ù; shkoni çish hanë ata zagarë atje; i muarrnë vëllezër/ baballarë/ çish kishnë; çi ka duqani të gjitha..(çi=çish) ; çi zuri, vrau (çi= kë, the apocopated form of the pronoun who)

Even as an interrogative pronoun, the çish form is used in the function of the object: çish thatë? çish do na bën baba? çish thua ti?

In this function, there is also the expression me se (preposition + interrogative pronoun se = what): me se do i bìnī? me se do jetoni? me se e do bukënë? me se d’e marrish? me çi do na mbahej (çi=se= what)?

Thus, as is evident from the examples, semantically the pronoun çish is equivalent to the interrogative and conjunctive pronoun çfarë (what). It is therefore used in the same function as the object çfarë (what) in Albanian. The expression me se (what) also has the same proclamative value, which is also evident from the example, as it has the same apocope çi, equal to çish.

The conjunctive pronouns çish, çil which are also used in the function of the subject: edhe mua çish të më lipset kutu e pesë vjet do m’i sillni bërna kutu (çish = çfarë : ajo që (do të më lipset); çila isht nana, çila isht bila, çila isht e vjemea, çila e sivjemea

Sometimes the forms çil and çi substitute for the form kë (what) of the interrogative or conjunctive pronoun, in the function of the object: çil kapi greku i therte; çi zuri vrau.

Semantically, the form çish sometimes coincides with the adverbs qysh and si (how), which, even though they appear to be interrogative, are adverbs of manner and are thus used in the context of manner: çish veni/ si jeni....// çish do vemi/ i tha baba. Çish i thonë atij vëndi......?.

All the aforementioned examples clearly speak to the frequent use of the form çish. As can be observed, in its place sometimes even the forms çil, çi, ç are used, but these uses are quite insignificant compared to the use of the form çish with all the above-mentioned functions. Cham is a spoken language that prominently demonstrates, even because of its conservatism, that phenomenon of spoken Albanian where a part of the sentence can be used with several functions at the same time.

As mentioned above, another phenomenon of interest in this speech is the use of the verb bëj (do) in the function of the predicate. Following its phonetic and morphological examination, we also observed the varied and very specific functions of this verb-predicate, even in syntax.

Interestingly enough, its frequent use instead of different verb forms is evident, both in function and in proclamation: i hodhi dorën në feste/ ja merr asaj / e/ hëë bëri (=u largua=went away) / duallë ka kufia; prof e prof u bëri (=fërkoi duart= rub hands) duarve nja di herë/ e bëri brup pallatin e ri. (Isufi 1978)

In Cham, there is also a special form of compound tenses of predicative verbs: u kam bënë (= jam bërë= I’ve become), u kesh bënë (=isha bërë= I was done), u kam lodhur (=jam lodhur= I am tired), u kam rrihtur (=jam rritur= I grew up), u kan martuar (=janë martuar= they married), u ka lagur (=është lagur= he is wet), u kish sellë (ishte sjellë= was brought), u ka gritur (është ngritur=is raised), u ka sumurë (është sëmurë= got sick), u ka qorruar, u kanë bashkuar etj: kur u kanë martuar të gjashta gocat e mia me dimi e me jelek, kanë lënë mënd, kanë lënë mend. As can be seen from the examples, this form is used in the function of the non-active imperfect. Thus, the above composite forms, together with the particle u placed before them, have a passive voice function.

At this point, it is worth recalling the preservation of the participle of bëj (make) in its earliest form bënë(=bërë=done) in the Cham variety, as a remnant of that superseded phase of Albanian when the phenomenon of rhotacism had not yet appeared. That is why the forms u kam bënë (jam bënë = jam bërë= I’ve become)), u kesh bënë (isha bënë=isha bërë= I was done), e ka bënë (e ka bërë), u ka bënë (është bërë)... etc., are more noticeable in this variety.

Quite characteristic of the syntax of Cham are some typical forms formed with the words një and pa: një të bënë meaning =bëri (në këtë rast, veproi) menjëherë në çast=he has done it (immediately); pa t’e qëlloi= e qëlloi (menjëherë në çast)= he hit it, (immediately) etc.

The form using një (një të bënë) is frequently used in daily speech in Cham: një të gritur= u ngrit (menjëherë në çast)= stand up (immediately) and, një të bënë, meaning bëri/ menjëherë në çast=acted (immediately); or, një të kapur (e kapi, menjëherë, në çast)= caught it (immediately) ... etc. The form using një can also be noticed in the Lower Coastline (Totoni 1964 ).

The form using pa is just as characteristic of this variety: pa t’e qëlloi= e qëlloi (menjëherë në çast)=he hit it (immediately), pa të pienj, pa t’e ndiejmë, pa t’e ndoqi me vrap, pa t’ia dha të klarit, pa t’e ngriti. This form, among other things, is noted in the Arvanites' speech, in the texts of Rainhold, described by Klosi "as a form with pa" (which we will consider below) (Klosi 2000).

Furthermore, we must explain that in no case, such as in Totoni and Klosi, have these forms been clarified in this way, although (in some uses) they are the same examples.

In Cham, two characteristic shapes, një (një të gritur)= u ngrit (menjëherë në çast)= stood up;) dhe pa (pa të pies) = të pyes (tani në çast)=to ask (immediately), semantically follow the same logic line. Our interpretation of either the Cham or the Lower Coast and the Arvanitas is this: the semantics of the forms një and pa in the context of use is related to the context of the time mode, menjëherë (immediately), në çast (instantly), for example:

pa të pies= të pyes (tani në çast)=to ask (immediately); pa t’e ndiejmë= ta dëgjojmë (tani në çast)= to listen (immediately); pa t’e ndoqi me vrap= e ndoqi me vrap (tani në çast)= he followed it (immediately); pa t’ia dha të klarit= (në çast) ia dha të qarit= to cry(immediately); pa t’e qëlloi= (në çast) e qëlloi= he hit it (immediately) (Troplini 2014).

Një të gritur= u ngrit (menjëherë në çast)= stood up; një të bënë = bëri (menjëherë në çast)= he did; një ta kapur= e kapi (menjëherë në çast)= caught it.

Sometimes the një form is accompanied by another form of this type, e.g., një të bënë e një të gritur...; një të kapur e një të bënë, where the phrase një të bënë often carries an exclamatory nuance: një të bënë e një të gritur... equivalent to Brof! = (very fast) -U ngrit në këmbë stood up (Brof!=exclamation).

It should be said that, although with an adverbial function, the words një and pa retain some qualities of emotional particles (një and pa).

In both cases, with pa and një, we think that we are dealing with uses that lead us to the circumstance of time, even though these uses are separated by a fine line from the circumstance of manner.

Let us now turn to some other phenomena of this variety within the parts of the sentence.

A common phenomenon in the Cham variety is the merging or elision of short forms, which function as objects, with:

• Conjunctive tense particles: t’e sheroj= ta shëroj= I’m going to heal it, t’e jap, t’e marr, t’e shoh, t’e hajë, t’e digjosh; t’e shoh; t’e hedh, t’e urrej; t’e ngriti etc.
• Conjunctive tense particles in the function of the future tense: do t’e rrahish –d’e rrahish= do ta rrahësh= to beat somebody (do t’e= d’e) ; do t’e marrish –d’e marrish etc.
• Short forms of the dative më, të: të m’e theriç= të ma therësh= to kill me , do m’e març, të m’e damkosni.. m’e mori (ka dora), t’e dhashë, t’e thashë
• Other connectors: kam treqind vjet q’e kam hedhur purtekën (që e kam hedhur= that I have threw

Klosi to the Arvanites mention only melting of short shapes with the particles of the Conjuctive tense (Klosi 2005: 18-19)

In the same context, we also mention that in verbs predicating the future tense, the particle të does not appear (with a rare exception when it is merged): do theç ( do të theç= do të thuash= you are saying), do thetë/ do themi, do thenë, do selli, do lemë, do veç, do baç, do dersi; do vejë, do nis etc.

• Also quite characteristic is the predictive verb of the future in the past, for example: do viî (do vente= do (të) vente= do të shkonte= he would go ); do liî (do linte); do marton (do martonte) etc. (Note the preservation of vowel length, which is a conservative phenomenon for this variety).
• We also add that in Cham there is in general a tendency not only not to manifest the particles of the future conjunctive tense, but this phenomenon can also be seen in the genitive article, mainly in pronouns with an article in the function of determiners or counterparts (objects): ja thaçë gjithëve= ja thaçë të gjithëve=ja thashë të gjithëve= I told them all; djali tia= djali i tij= his son, djelvet saj = djelve të saj=djemve të saj=her sons etc.

A characteristic trait that we find from Buzuku (1555) to the early diaspora as a whole is the abbreviated term ù, e përemrit vetor unë (I) të shqipes së sotme, in the function of the subject of the sentence: Tani Tasù, ù do iki (Tani Tasu unë do të iki= Tasu, now I’m going); ù do shkoj një vërdallë saraive e do hegëllij/ se ù do hegëllij aq fort sa do bien podhètë e shtëpisë bedhe (përdhe) Po ti do t’merrja leje ù, o Miço (Dhimitër)?

Interestingly enough, in Cham there appear to be ancient forms of the composite predicate: vate të mirr (shkoi të merrte=he went to take), zuri të klajë (filloi të qante=started crying etc.

Even the characteristic form nek of Cham performs several functions simultaneously. Thus, besides its use as a preposition associated with nouns (ne, nek) in the function of the circumstance of place: e more vesh tanì, kur qepeshim ne(tek) ajo vì:la:..( te ajo vila= at that villa . ; erdhi nek ai (tek ai= at him)qe vëzhdrin përpjeti: një grusht lira edhe atij), it is also used as:

Adverb in the function of the circumstance of place: nek mirr abdes hoxhallartë (atje ku mirrnin abdes hoxhallarët=where the preachers take ablution, ikte gjaku vuuuuu...; fërkoi sitë e i erdhë përgjisëm// vate e gjeti e ujët nek laheshin ato / opo i erdhën gjisej sitë)

Adverb in the function of the circumstance of time, where even the word kaa can be noticed (kaha= ndërkohë që=kur= while=during): djali kaa vate të mirr kutinë ka xhepi/ i feksi gugusheja) (Isufi 1978)

In the daily variety of Cham, there seem to be some very characteristic conservative words or phonetic and morphological phenomena that, in addition to their importance and value as such, give an even greater coloring to the characteristic sentences of this dialect. They contribute to highlighting the special features of summoning sentences. They also help to better notice and understand the expressive intonation of Cham (which in some cases accompanies these sentences), as well as the emotional characteristics of this speech. As such, we have distinguished:

The predicate am (epimë>epmë> jepmë= give me): Xhdo grua që gëcente, vijnë u zijnë dorën kshtu (tregon se si..) : ame dorën? Ma jep (jepmë) pak dorën?= Can you give me the hand? - U zijnë dorën që gëcejnë edhe vijnë (vente, shkonte) në fund ajo...

A typical form that cannot be surpassed is the form shklata (si ka mundësi= si është e mundur një gjë e tillë= How can it be possible?) that in most cases shows astonishment and wonder, but as an exclamation it contributes to highlighting Cham intonation with a syntactic function: Shklata more djaalëëë? Shklata vjëhrra jote nuk e ka bën ndonjëheerëëë?!

In the same context, we can also mention the value of the exclamation eni (për përshtatjen e së cilës është vështirë të gjendet gjegjësja në shqip): Eni moj vaajzëëë?! (Hë moj vaajzëëë!?= Come you girl!) Eni moj tha naanaaa?!

Characteristic enough seems to be the negative particle se or nuku in Cham, which fulfills the negative meaning of the sentence: Vallahì se të fal; vëllah, nuku e fal (në emër të Zotit nuk e fal= In the name of God I don’t forgive him.

We cannot fail to mention the prefix ja:m, njam (deri= to, until) and sometimes jaram (rarely) that accompanies a noun, pronoun, or adverb in the function of the circumstance of place: krësëla e glatë, njam kutù; vate jam në sinuar të bukrës dheut/ atje na e she e bukura dheut e qorrohet ka sitë breti; atje kishte njerëz me kostume njam (jaram> nga) kutu e njam kutu (... nga këtu e deri këtu= from here to here).

The predicate verbs çel (ndez= light up), gjegj (dëgjoj=listen) of Cham are early forms that can be found in the Meshari of Buzuku (the first written Albanian book) and other ancient authors in general. Apart from Cham, we find them today both in the diaspora varieties and in some of the Low Coast varieties.

Characteristic in this regard also seem to be the earliest forms of auxiliary verbs as part of the predicate of the Old Albanian language:

jesha (isha= I was), jeshe ( ishe= you were, ish (ishte= he was), njëjës // jeshëm ( ishim= we were), jeshët ( ishit= you were), jeshën (ishin= they were), shumës.

kesha (kisha=I had) , keshe (kishe=you had, kish( kishte= he had), njëjës keshëm( kishim=we had), keshët (kishit=you had), keshën (kishin= they had), shumës.

kleva (qeshë=have been), kleve (qe= you have been), pava (pashë=I saw), pave (pe=you saw) etc.

Some typical phonetic phenomena that give color to the Cham variety are observed in some words with different syntactic functions, such as predicates, circumstantials, determinants, etc.: aχere (atëhere=then, so)., pënoj (punoj=I work), tënë (tonë=ours), kutu (këtu=here), ima (imja=mine), jota ( jotja=yours) etc.

Some of the syntactic elements that Klosi first noted in the Arvanitas language also appear in Cham (Klosi 2005: 19-21).

In Cham, preference is given to a coordinated construction instead of a subordinate one with a purpose or cause function. This is achieved using the conjunction e (and), which is frequently used in Cham: atje na e she e bukura dheut e qorrohet ka sitë breti (atje e pa e bukura e dheut ( figurë mitologjike) dhe për këtë arsye qërrohet nga sytë mbreti= There, Beauty of the Earth (mythological figure,) saw him and for this reason the king became blind; paaç të bukurën e dheut e u qorruaç; ja do heqësh kpucët e do rrish kutu me mua; i shoqi kish një karrocë e me atë nxirr bukn’ e gojës.............. etc.

It should be emphasized that this fact should not be confused with another frequent use of the conjunction e (and), where its repetition serves to connect coordinated sentences, or to connect coordinating elements where it is often used in the function of the coordinating particle dhe (and): na ish e diç na ish; ja hipi e u nis; e pa e e vuri në xhep (e pa dhe e vuri ne xhep= He saw it and put it in his pocket)

At this point, we should mention the absence of connectors: Po…tani….s’ba mënd, për Zotin, vata tetëdhjetë e katër vjeçe (Po........ tani........ nuk mbaj më mënd për Zotin sepse shkova (u bëra)tetëdhjetë e katër vjeçe= But...now...I don’t remember, in the name of God, because I’m eighty four years old)

In Cham, the determinants are placed first: të këqinj njerëz që janë (të këqinj njerëz= njerëz të këqinj=mean people ) ; më të prapë djel s’më kanë zënë sitë; më të keqe nuse nuk kam parë, të mbëdhenj fiq etc.

Cham is one of those varieties that, once known well, leaves you with a special impression of a "great wealth in words and phraseology" that deserves separate treatment: spaçë ka sitë do shoh ka vetullat (spashë nga sytë do shoh nga vetullat=I can’t see from my eyes, how can I see from my eyebrows); të dahet gruri ka egjëra, vë krietë ndë trastë ... etc.

Conclusion

The above treatments and variety of examples show, in the first place, the great linguistic richness that our varieties preserve. Cham is distinguished by its specific phenomena of syntactic value, which are of particular importance for such studies, primarily for these varieties and their documentation, and secondly for Albanian linguistics.

The aforementioned phenomena are an important part of the physiognomy of this variety and, as such, for the linguistic value they carry, also constitute important alarm signals for in-depth studies leading in two indispensable directions: on the one hand, to historical linguistic studies, and on the other hand, to the possibility of in-depth developments in coherence with the latest linguistic developments of our day.

References